- For a video that considers the potential causes of increasing numbers of people being overweight/obese from an easy to understand scientific perspective see the following link:
- Adhering to both quality diet and sufficient physical activity is important for optimally reducing the risk of mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease and adiposity-related cancers. For the abstract to the research that came to this conclusion see the following link
- For many people it is difficult to sufficiently reduce sufficient weight / fat mass by exercise alone.
- It is very easy to consume more calories than burnt through exercise.
- For a concise video that provides an overview about this issue see the following link:
- See the following links for concise articles and then a longer video that consider the issues of exercise and diet for weight loss:
- https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-best-exercise-for-losing-weight-51511
- https://theconversation.com/food-v-exercise-what-makes-the-biggest-difference-in-weight-loss-3639
- https://theconversation.com/reverse-dieting-slowly-increasing-calories-wont-prevent-weight-regain-but-may-have-other-benefits-144316
- https://youtu.be/0KpxLSC1esI
- It is difficult to accurately determine calories burnt through exercise without a wearable that can be personalised.
- Exercise machine calorie counting is notoriously unreliable (as a minimum it would need to know the exercisers; exercise rate, weight, sex and age to make a reasonable estimate).
- For an on-line calculator that estimates how many calories you burn each day and takes into account various individual parameters including your estimated activity level see the following link:
- For many people exercise increases appetite although for others it can suppress it. See the following link to a research paper about this:
- Different types of exercise can have different apetite effects on different people so if you can find a form of exercise that can deliver the health outcomes you require and have a positive, neutral or more easily manageable effect on an increased appetite than other forms of exercise then weight management should be easier.
- Ongoing exercise has been shown to have a beneficial impact on the maintenance of weight but in general not for weight loss unless combined with an appropriate diet.
- The healthiest approach to body weight loss is by the reduction of body fat mass whilst maintaining / building muscle mass.
- This maintains / builds lean body mass and strength and aids more optimal metabolism. However research suggests that the metabolic improvement available is only about 100 Kcals per day +/- 50 Kcals as a result of strength / resistance exercise which would be a relatively minor impact from a purely weight loss perspective. See the following link to the research paper abstract:
- Muscle-strengthening activities can help maintain lean body mass during a program of weight loss, but by themselves result in little weight loss. For the source of this statement see page 79 of the report accessed via the following link:
- Many people find losing body weight to be very challenging.
- The only way (apart from an accident / illness / surgery) to lose weight is to create a calorie deficit.
- The primary way to do this is to follow a calorie controlled macro-nutrient balanced diet.
- For a video about nutrition and diets see the following link:
- For a video that discusses high fat and low carbohydrate diets and high carbohydrate and low fat diets and diet in general see the following link:
- https://youtu.be/oTccIyHjxVUhttps://youtu.be/oTccIyHjxVU
- For a video that discusses dietary fats and their differences from a nutritional perspective see the following link:
- For a very long video that deep dives into high fat (keto) diets see the following link:
- The scientific evidence does seem to favour a largely wholefood (and if safe, unprocessed / minimally processed with ideally a reasonable proportion consumed raw or if cooked, minimally cooked) plant based diet (vegetables, legumes, grains, seeds, nuts, herbs, spices, fruit) with as much plant based wholefood variety that you can manage (the consumption of about 30 different types of plants per week being suggested as a reasonable target). The inclusion of some live fermented foods may also be beneficial.
- See the following link to a video that provides evidence in support of the above statement:
- For an article and a video about diary foods and fermented diary products see the following links:
- https://theconversation.com/full-fat-or-low-fat-cheese-and-milk-a-dietitian-on-which-is-better-207383
- https://youtu.be/uCS4p715gvU
- For a video about the most nutritious non diary milk see the following link:
- For a video that discusses the pros and cons of consuming organic foods see the following link:
- For videos about how to approach adopting such a diet see the following links:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/flashback-friday-dr-gregers-daily-dozen-checklist/
- https://youtu.be/_ZyrC9Iaj3I
- For a video about possible life expectancy benefits from adopting such a diet and other healthy lifestyle improvements see the following link:
- See the the information that follows for some of the key information from the: Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. See the following link to the research:
- https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(19)30041-8/fulltext
- Some key summary text from this research: We found that improvement of diet could potentially prevent one in every five deaths globally. Our findings show that, unlike many other risk factors, dietary risks affected people regardless of age, sex, and sociodemographic development of their place of residence. Although the impact of individual dietary factors varied across countries, non-optimal intake of three dietary factors (whole grains, fruits, and sodium) accounted for more than 50% of deaths and 66% of DALYs attributable to diet.
- Number of deaths and DALYs and age-standardised mortality rate and DALY rate (per 100 000 population) attributable to individual dietary risks at the global and SDI level in 2017. DALY=disability-adjusted life-year. SDI=Socio-demographic Index.
- Dietary risk factor exposure definitions, optimal level, and data representativeness index, 1990–2017
Exposure definition Optimal level of intake (optimal range of intake) Data representativeness index (%) Diet low in fruits Mean daily consumption of fruits (fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried fruits, excluding fruit juices and salted or pickled fruits) 250 g (200–300) per day 94·9 Diet low in vegetables Mean daily consumption of vegetables (fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried vegetables, excluding legumes and salted or pickled vegetables, juices, nuts, seeds, and starchy vegetables such as potatoes or corn) 360 g (290–430) per day 94·9 Diet low in legumes Mean daily consumption of legumes (fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried legumes) 60 g (50–70) per day 94·9 Diet low in whole grains Mean daily consumption of whole grains (bran, germ, and endosperm in their natural proportion) from breakfast cereals, bread, rice, pasta, biscuits, muffins, tortillas, pancakes, and other sources 125 g (100–150) per day 94·9 Diet low in nuts and seeds Mean daily consumption of nut and seed foods 21 g (16–25) per day 94·9 Diet low in milk Mean daily consumption of milk including non-fat, low-fat, and full-fat milk, excluding soy milk and other plant derivatives 435 g (350–520) per day 94·9 Diet high in red meat Mean daily consumption of red meat (beef, pork, lamb, and goat, but excluding poultry, fish, eggs, and all processed meats) 23 g (18–27) per day 94·9 Diet high in processed meat Mean daily consumption of meat preserved by smoking, curing, salting, or addition of chemical preservatives 2 g (0–4) per day 36·9 Diet high in sugar-sweetened beverages Mean daily consumption of beverages with ≥50 kcal per 226·8 serving, including carbonated beverages, sodas, energy drinks, fruit drinks, but excluding 100% fruit and vegetable juices 3 g (0–5) per day 36·9 Diet low in fibre Mean daily intake of fibre from all sources including fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and pulses 24 g (19–28) per day 94·9 Diet low in calcium Mean daily intake of calcium from all sources, including milk, yogurt, and cheese 1·25 g (1·00–1·50) per day 94·9 Diet low in seafood omega-3 fatty acids Mean daily intake of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid 250 mg (200–300) per day 94·9 Diet low in polyunsaturated fatty acids Mean daily intake of omega-6 fatty acids from all sources, mainly liquid vegetable oils, including soybean oil, corn oil, and safflower oil 11% (9–13) of total daily energy 94·9 Diet high in trans fatty acids Mean daily intake of trans fat from all sources, mainly partially hydrogenated vegetable oils and ruminant products 0·5% (0·0–1·0) of total daily energy 36·9 Diet high in sodium 24 h urinary sodium measured in g per day 3 g (1–5) per day* 26·2 * To reflect the uncertainty in existing evidence on optimal level of intake for sodium, 1–5 g per day was considered as the uncertainty range for the optimal level of sodium where less than 2·3 g per day is the intake level of sodium associated with the lowest level of blood pressure in randomised controlled trials and 4–5 g per day is the level of sodium intake associated with the lowest risk of cardiovascular disease in observational studies. - For research that estimates the impact of food choices on life expectancy see the following link:
- https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003889
- For the online calculator created as part of the above modelling research that enables the instant estimation of the effect on life expectancy by making a range of dietary changes see the following link:
- Expected increase in life expectancy for optimising different food groups with diet changes initiating from various ages between 20 and 80 years of age and a less optimal but potentially more feasible to adopt diet see the following chart from the above modelling research:
- For the optimal diet and feasibility approach diet, the following intakes were used: 225 g and 137.5 g whole grains (fresh weight), 400 g and 325 g vegetables, 400 g and/ 300 g fruits, 25 g and 12.5 g nuts, 200 g and/ 100 g legumes, 200 g and 100 g fish, 25 g and 37.5 g eggs, 200 g and 250 g milk/dairy, 50 g and 100 g refined grains, 0 g and 50 g red meat, 0 g and 25 g processed meat, 50 g and 62.5 g white meat, 0 g and 250 g sugar-sweetened beverages, and 25 g and 25 g added plant oils. Note that lines for life expectancy for red and processed meat changes are overlapping and similarly also for white meat and added oils.
- A large scale population diet study found that about 2 portions of fruit and 3 portions of vegetables a day was associated with being optimal for lowering mortality (intakes of fruit juices and potatoes were not associated with total and cause-specific mortality). See the following link to the research:
- A large scale study found that higher unprocessed red meat, processed meat, and poultry meat consumption was associated with higher risks of several common health conditions. On average, participants who reported consuming meat regularly (three or more times per week) had more adverse health behaviours and characteristics than participants who consumed meat less regularly, and most of the positive associations observed for meat consumption and health risks were substantially attenuated after adjustment for body mass index. See the following link to the research:
- https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-021-01922-9
- For a video (produced before the above research was published but which still has relevance to it) that aims to provide an objective view about meat eating see the following link:
- For a video that describes the risks of eating red and processed meats with risk comparisons with other activities see the following link:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/how-much-does-meat-affect-longevity/
- For a video about the misinterpretation of the scientific evidence about meat eating see the following link:
- For a video that explains what the elements of a vegetable based macro-nutrient balanced diet are see the following link:
- For a video about nutritional issues to be aware of with manufactured plant based products see the following links:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/are-beyond-meat-and-the-impossible-burger-healthy/
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/plant-based-protein-are-pea-and-soy-protein-isolates-harmful/
- If you are considering a vegan diet see the following link to an overview article about the research on vegan diets:
- Key principles with regards to diet and calorie deficit to be aware of are:
- That although a calorie always equals a calorie (as it is simply a measure of energy) the same number of calories can be consumed much more quickly, easily and with much less apparent immediate physical and mental impact in some foods compared to others. Such quick to consume, high calorie density foods can have a large impact on managing a calorie deficit, for example, drinking a glass of smooth fruit juice compared to eating the equivalent fruit from which it is made. The body has to expend additional time and energy and may also not be able to utilise as many of the calories available in the raw fruit compared to the fruit juice and therefore less overall calories intake will result. The raw fruit will also make you feel fuller which may reduce calorie intake further. See the following link to research about this:
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680008/
- For more about this subject area see the following video links:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/cut-the-calorie-rich-and-processed-foods/
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/which-is-a-better-breakfast-cereal-or-oatmeal/
- For a video that discusses what a processed food is see the following link:
- Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain.
- For an articles about ultra-processed foods see the following links:
- https://theconversation.com/ultra-processed-foods-its-not-just-their-low-nutritional-value-thats-a-concern-189918
- https://theconversation.com/ultra-processed-foods-bread-may-be-considered-one-but-that-doesnt-mean-its-all-bad-207236
- For a video about ultra-processed foods see the following link:
- The calories given on food labels should be considered as estimates as they vary significantly in how they are determined and when this is combined with normal product variations and a tendency to cast a product in the best light means that significant under estimations can be an issue. There can also be significant differences between how different individuals metabolise particular foods which means particular foods may have a greater calorie impact in one person compared to another. See the following links to a short and then longer video about calories and then an article that explains food labelling issues:
- https://youtu.be/SOqhHOoMPFk?feature=shared
- https://youtu.be/0hSxXtzDhT0
- https://theconversation.com/why-most-food-labels-are-wrong-about-calories-35081
- There are techniques and food choices that can help with managing increased appetite "feeling hungry" and to help with satiety, "feeling full". Considering the fruit juice example above you'd probably find your appetite would be reduced for longer, you'd probably eat less of the food in question and your body would have to work harder to consume the same number of calories by consuming the raw fruit compared to consuming it directly via drinking the equivalent amount of fruit in a fruit juice. Alternatively consuming the same juice in a frozen state sits in the middle ground.
- See the following link for an article about satiety and foods that are filling:
- There are various metabolic optimisations that can be considered to help but not everyone is the same and so they may or may not appeal / work for you. I've listed these further down this page.
- Sticking to your chosen calorie deficit diet is a fundamental issue.
- The diet you can stick to long term and incorporate into your lifestyle is likely to be the best. Being clear on what you motivation is and how to continually reinforce it can be key.
- For an article about behavioural psychology and some weight loss insights see the following link:
- People in general are very poor at accurately managing calorie intake.
- Looking at nutritional labels on foods or using mobile phone apps to find out / record nutritional information can help build calorie content awareness and help with the unknowing consumption of high calorie dense foods.
- For a good, albeit long read, about the impact of ultra-processed food in a diet see the following link:
- For a video that explains the impact of the big business food industry on population food choices and how it influences them see the following link:
- Keeping food out of sight and reach that don't fit with your diet is a good strategy to help avoid consuming such foods.
- Swapping types of food or drinks that you regularly consume for lower fat / sugar versions can provide easy wins.
- Reducing or stopping consuming drinking alcoholic drinks, if you drink alcohol, can have a significant impact.
- See the following table for the calories that alcohol adds to different strength and size alcoholic drinks:
- 1 UK unit of alcohol = 8g of alcohol = 56 kcals. However to determine the total calories of an alcoholic drink you need to know the calories of the other components of the drink, in the UK this is rarely provided by product providers.
- For an article about alcohol and diet impact see the following link:
- Having a strategy to deal with food cravings and dealing with them as they arise can be helpful to avoiding consuming foods don't want to consume. Such strategies can be as simple as acknowledging the craving to deploying various distraction techniques such as chewing gum, drinking water, etc.
- Eating the bulk of your food earlier in the day rather than later has been found to have beneficial weight loss effects. See the following video for an overview of the research:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/breakfast-like-a-king-lunch-like-a-prince-dinner-like-a-pauper/
- For an explanation about why the human body works in the way detailed in the above video see the video in the following link:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/eat-more-calories-in-the-morning-than-the-evening/
- For research undertaken since the above two videos were produced which is supportive of the overall conclusion but disagrees about the biological mechanisms see the following link:
- If you are supporting your diet weight loss approach with exercise and you are dieting for health reasons, research suggests that if you exercise at Moderate intensity in a fasted state (e.g. in the morning after sleeping and before eating) you may be able to increase the amount of fat burnt during the exercise (to give an improved insulin response). It may also have an impact on reducing the total number of calories consumed overall as well, although there seems to be some debate about this. However you will only lose weight and fat overall if your are in overall calorie deficit. See the following links to the research and an article and video that discusses it:
- https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/105/3/660/5599745
- https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnme/2016/1984198/
- https://theconversation.com/why-its-better-to-exercise-before-breakfast-126245
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/better-to-exercise-before-or-after-meals-for-weight-loss-and-blood-sugar-control/
- Intermittent fasting and time restricted eating periods are examples of approaches that can help.
- See the following link for an article that provides a concise overview of these approaches and details the approaches that may provide additional health benefits beyond weight loss:
- Research on alternate day intermittent fasting has however been shown to have detrimental effects on cholesterol levels, see the following link to the research paper:
- See the following link for a video about the optimal approach to time restricted eating:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/the-benefits-of-early-time-restricted-eating/
- A key point being that the way the human body processes food means that, for the same amount of food, more calories are burnt when the food is consumed earlier in the day than when it is consumed later in the day.
- For information about how to incorporate time restricted eating (TRE) into your day from an optimal health perspective see the following diagram:
- For information about the optimal amount of sleep see the following chart:
- The dose-response analysis between nighttime sleep duration and risk of all-cause mortality. Source:
- Getting between 7 and 9 hours good quality sleep a night helps with weight loss and ongoing weight management. See the following link to an article about weight loss and sleep:
- Fasting for longer than 24 hours is fraught with significant life threatening risks, see the video in the following link for an overview:
- Finding the diet approach(es) that best works for you as an individual (by trial and error) and sticking to it/them is key.
- For example, for some people an intermittent fasting based approach will work but others may not be able to tolerate it.
- Also there is a high degree of individual variability in response to foods and different weight-loss diets so an approach(es) that works for one person may not work for another. See the following link for key research about this:
- https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(15)01481-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867415014816%3Fshowall%3Dtrue
- See the following link to a research abstract that reports further developments in predicting "optimal" individual diets:
- It can be difficult to manage and be accurate with calorie intake to ensure a deficit without actually planning and recording it.
- Planning / Pre-preparing meals so you can be more accurate in knowing the calories you consume may help you stick to your diet.
- Setting daily / weekly food goals and tracking food and drinks consumed can be a useful strategies.
- For a nice concise article about how calories in food are determined and accuracy see the following link:
- For a good article about how calories in food are determined with a wider context see the following link:
- For a well written article about calorie counting see the following link:
- For many people following a calorie deficit diet increases appetite.
- See the following link for an article that explains why this is the case:
- See the following link for an article that explains food cravings:
- Increased appetite can be managed with the following approaches:
- Drinking water regularly throughout the day (ideally cold), when hungry and just before eating a meal (about half a litre).
- In addition to waters effect with helping with satiety see the following videos about its effects on metabolism:
- Eating a low calorie pre meal dish composed of high water content vegetables such as; tomato salad, coleslaw, mixed salad (with low calorie dressings, ideally vinegary because it provides additional weight loss benefits), raw vegetables, vegetable soup, etc.
- Adding a tablespoon of oat bran or oatmeal to a salad or soup may also make you feel fuller (although you will want to be aware of the additional calories it adds).
- If you want to know more about oats see the following link:
- Incorporating plenty of high fibre, low calorie vegetables into your diet.
- High fibre consumption also impacts the full absorption of calories from food by the body and therefore reduces the calories available to it.
- A good rule of thumb is to preferentially consume foods with a minimum of 1 part fibre to 5 parts carbohydrate.
- Weighing yourself frequently (at least several times per week or even daily at the same time of the day and under similar conditions) and recording it is generally seen as a useful aid to effectively managing weight and can provide an opportunity to learn more about how food and activity affect your weight.
- Weight can vary considerably day to day so it is the change over weeks that is more important to focus on.
- People naturally gain weight in the autumn which is something to be aware of. See the following link to a video that explains this phenomenon:
- Setting a weight loss goal can be useful as can weekly weight loss targets.
- For online calculators that can be used to estimate changes in body weight as a result of changes in your daily calorie balance see the following links:
- https://www.niddk.nih.gov/bwp
- https://www.pbrc.edu/research-and-faculty/calculators/weight-loss-predictor/
- See the following link to research that suggests some weight loss calculators may overestimate the energy requirements for more obesity susceptible individuals:
- https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/9/1012/htm
- Obesity susceptible individuals self identified themselves in this study by answering the following statements positively; 1. I am a person who needs to eat small amounts of food to manage my weight and 2. I am a person who gains weight easily and the following statements negatively; 1. I am a person who can eat whatever I like without gaining weight 2. I am a person who loses weight easily 3. I am a person who maintains my weight easily 4. I am a person who finds it difficult to put on weight.
- If combined with strength/resistance exercise to maintain / build muscle mass or for very large daily calorie deficits sufficient protein is required (and probably vitamin and mineral supplementation in the latter case too).
- 1 to 3 whole body strength/resistance sessions per week on, ideally non consecutive, days are suggested.
- The number and exercises in sessions is determined by your muscle mass building needs and daily calorie intake.
- For information about recommended normal daily protein needs see the following link:
- For a long video about muscles, protein, resistance exercise and related issues see the following link:
- For information about recommended daily protein needs for building muscle see the following link:
- The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) Expert Statement on optimising protein intake recommendations for skeletal muscle mass in older adults to support healthy ageing.
- First published in The Sport and Exercise Scientist, Issue 72, Summer 2022. Published by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences - www.bases.org.uk. Copyright © BASES, 2022. Full text source (.pdf):
- For a video that is reasonably consistent with the above with a practical focus (which displays preserved human body parts) see the following link:
- For a video about the impact of a high protein diet see the following link:
- For videos about protein and diet see the following links. The second video builds upon and fills in some of the gaps in the first video:
- For a very long detailed deep dive video about protein that has some different perspectives than the video above see the following link:
- For information about getting protein into your diet see the following link:
- https://theconversation.com/health-check-heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-protein-supplements-45766
- For information about optimum, vegetable based diet, nutrition recommendations see the following link:
- For very comprehensive information about the nutrition of different foods see the following link:
- For a very comprehensive source of information about micronutrients with clear evidence linking see the following link:
- For focused information about recommended daily vitamin and mineral requirements, maximum tolerance levels and food sources see the following links:
- Sufficient protein and fibre consumption can help with appetite management.
- See the following link for a concise article about the key points about protein and weight loss:
- https://theconversation.com/beach-body-row-misses-the-key-points-about-protein-and-weight-loss-40997
- Examples of relatively high protein, high fibre, high nutrient but low fat and low carbohydrate vegetable sources, easy to incorporate into a diet are; lentils and beans (e.g. cannellini beans, chick peas, edamame beans, etc) and wholegrains (e.g. oats, hulled barley, buckwheat, sorghum, etc).
- For research information about beans and fresh cooked beans versus cooked canned beans see the following link:
- For a video about the best ways to cook beans and vegetables see the following link:
- For a video that looks at the potential health benefits of plant compared to animal based protein see the following link:
- Examples of relatively; high protein, low fat and low carbohydrate content diary products easy to incorporate into a diet are; skyr yogurt and low fat cheese (a supplier with widely available low fat cheese products in the UK is https://www.eatleancheese.co.uk/ )
- For good starting points about the protein and fiber content of foods from an excellent nutritional data website see the following links:
- https://www.myfooddata.com/articles/foods-highest-in-protein.php
- https://www.myfooddata.com/articles/foods-high-in-dietary-fiber.php
- For a scientific paper that provides a review of information about food types and impacts on appetite see the following link:
- For an article about how appetite research is used and misused see the following link:
- Excessive calorie deficits can reduce metabolism and slow weight loss.
- Individual basal metabolism can vary significantly even between individuals with similar physical characteristics (by up to about 30%).and can also vary significantly between different individuals in response to a calorie deficit diet.
- Body weight is a major daily energy need determining factor and therefore as an individual looses weight their daily energy (calorific) needs will decrease (assuming all other factors are equal).
- In general, males have higher metabolic rates than females. Metabolic rates decrease with age although they have been shown to be pretty static between the age of 20 and 60 (an average 70kg person has been calculated to have a daily reduction in energy expenditure of about 500Kcal per day at age 70 compared to when they were 30). Metabolic rates also decrease when individuals are overweight/obese.
- For further information about this see the following research articles:
- An individuals genetic makeup can have a significant influence on an individuals ability to lose / gain weight.
- For more about this see the Genetic influences section at the bottom of this page.
- However barring specific medical conditions and regardless of genetic makeup everyone should however be able to lose / gain weight but just at different rates and with different amounts of effort (perceived and real).
- As an individual becomes overweight/obese their metabolism decreases thus making it harder to lose weight.
- People with unwanted obesity can be thought in terms of having an illness (metabolic syndrome), albeit potentially reversible.
- For a psychological perspective on this see the following news link:
- For information about metabolic syndrome see the following link:
- As an individual becomes fitter metabolism becomes optimised and fat is more readily burnt by the body. Cardiorespiratory and strength/resistance exercise have separate and additive impacts.
- Dropping / reducing the number of sweetened drinks in your diet or reducing the amount of sugar in them is an easy way to reduce calorie intake and may have other health benefits too, see the following link to some research about this:
- https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/95/2/283/4576708
- For a video about sugar and sweeteners see the following link:
- If you are thinking of switching to artificial sweeteners see the following link to a video about them:
- Drinking water throughout the day and when feeling hungry can help manage feeling hungry.
- For information about how much you actually need to drink each day to stay healthy see the article accessed via the following link:
- To understand the dental erosion effects of different drinks you might choose for hydration see the following link (you'll probably want to consider the calories in each drink too):
- https://www.ada.org/en/~/media/ADA/Public%20Programs/Files/JADA_The%20pH%20of%20beverages%20in%20the%20United%20States
- The American Dental Association paper linked to above provides the key following advice: “The elimination of extremely erosive drinks (pH < 3.0), minimizing erosive drinks (pH = 3.0-3.99), and substituting drinks with a (pH >= 4.0) would be prudent advice for the prevention of erosion.” Drinks with a PH greater and equal to 4 are classified by them as minimally erosive.
- Plain water is not erosive and sparkling water is classed as minimally erosive.
- Hard water (relatively high bicarbonate content) which is usually associated with high mineral content too e.g. high calcium and magnesium salts, has a large influence on the flavour of hot drinks in particular e.g. coffees and teas. These taste much better if the water is softened and the mineral salt content reduced a little too (but not removed completely).
- To ensure drink flavour consistency good quality cafes usually treat the water they use to provide consistent hardness and mineral content.
- To treat hard tap water you could try the following product:
- Drinking cold water may burn additional calories as the body burns calories to bring the water up to body temperature.
- Too much water consumption will give you water intoxication symptoms.
- Human kidneys cannot handle more than about one litre per hour.
- About 2 litres of water per day is sufficient for non exercising individuals.
- For a video that provides more detail about this see the following link:
- Being in a cold environment burns additional calories as the body burns calories to maintain normal body temperature.
- Cold generally increases appetite.
- For a video about exercising in the cold and the impact on weight see the following link:
- People often find being cold creates unacceptable discomfort.
- For a nice little article about feeling the cold see the following link:
- Getting too cold can kill you.
- For a video (which shows preserved human body parts) about cold plunging and how it changes the body see the following link:
- For a detailed video that scientifically dissects a well known lifestyle approach with a cold therapy core component see the following link:
- It is recommended to not leave more than 5 hrs between meals.
- The body takes some time to process food and subsequently suppress appetite and so eating meals slowly can help with not over eating.
- For a great article that considers some of the challenges about weight loss see the following link:
Foods / drink that may aid weight loss
- Consuming caffeine generally seems to increase the bodies rate of metabolism.
- See the following link for a video about the impact of coffee and caffeine and how it affects people differently:
- See the following link for research about the effect of caffeine on energy balance:
- See the following link for an article about coffee and metabolism:
- The mean elimination half-life of caffeine from a healthy human body is considered to by about 5 hours but ranges between 1.5 to 9.5 hours due to the wide variety of variables that influence caffeine metabolism.
- A lethal dose of caffeine is thought to be from about 3g of caffeine for those that can normally tolerate it but extreme side effects can be experienced from about 1g. So go easy on on how much you consume. See the following link to the research:
- https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/1487123
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223802/
- For videos about over dosing on caffeine by consuming too much (via coffee and then caffeine powder) explained with the use of case studies see the following links:
- There are many variables that determine the amount of caffeine in a cup of coffee (e.g. coffee type, degree of roasting, method of brewing, etc), a rough guide would be that a 250ml cup of "standard strength" freshly brewed filter coffee would provide about 100mg (although the last video in the list below, which does some real world testing, suggests about 170mg). For further information see the following links:
- https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/how-much-caffeine-in-coffee
- https://elevencoffees.com/how-much-caffeine-is-in-a-coffee-bean/
- https://youtu.be/etnMr8oUSDo
- For an article about caffeine in tea and coffee see the following link:
- For a video about caffeine in general see the following link:
- For a video about caffeine with an anatomical (with internal body part images) and medical focus see the following link:
- For a video about coffee and coffee nutrition see the following link:
- For a video about the impact of adding milk / milk alternatives to coffee see the following link:
- For an article about eating coffee beans see the following link:
- For an article about caffeine and exercise see the following link:
- Coffee subtypes and associations with incident arrhythmia, CVD, and mortality. Caffeinated (ground/instant) but not decaffeinated coffee reduced the risk of arrhythmia. Both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee reduced incident CVD and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risks. CI, confidence interval; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HR, hazard ratio. Source:
- The substances listed below can have body weight reduction impacts (the research indicates between a 1 to 2.5% body weight reduction after at least 3 months of use, depending on the food) so relatively small in the scheme of things but on the basis of every little can help and taking a marginal gains approach they may be worth trying. This assumes you can tolerate them although in general they seem to be well tolerated by most individuals. Their effectiveness may vary by individual too. They all also appear to have potential general health benefits as well. I have listed them in order of what I have determined to be the greatest to least impact on body weight reduction although the significant variances in study approaches makes this difficult to do and so it is my best guess following a review and comparison of all the studies. A number of the studies were undertaken with participants on a calorie restricted diet and showed additional weight loss compared to the control participants. If each of the foods worked additively (and I haven't come across any research about this to say this would or wouldn't be the case) and consumed them all whilst following a calorie restrictive diet you you may potentially achieve up to about a 15% extra body weight reduction but that conclusion is speculative (alternatively you could just eat less and include one or more of them in your diet for the potential health benefits).
- Consuming vinegar each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research by following the link below:
- https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1271/bbb.90231#aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudGFuZGZvbmxpbmUuY29tL2RvaS9wZGYvMTAuMTI3MS9iYmIuOTAyMzE/bmVlZEFjY2Vzcz10cnVlQEBAMA==
- Dose of 30ml vinegar per day.
- Vinegar is acid so consume it with food or water and not on its own due to dental erosion and possible unpleasant digestion effects.
- For a video that provides an overview see the following link:
- Consuming green-plant membranes each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research by following the link below:
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666314003493?via%3Dihub
- Dose of 5g dried baby spinach leafs per day.
- Consuming garlic powder each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research by following the link below:
- http://www.advbiores.net/article.asp?issn=2277-9175;year=2016;volume=5;issue=1;spage=2;epage=2;aulast=Soleimani
- Dose of 1g garlic powder per day.
- Eating ground flaxseed (also known as linseed) each day has been found to aid weight loss. See a video overview of the research and then one of the key research abstracts by following the links below:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/benefits-of-flaxseed-meal-for-weight-loss/
- https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/obr.12550#
- Dose of 30g whole ground flaxseed per day.
- Consuming cumin powder each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research abstract by following the link below:
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1744388114000668?via%3Dihub
- Dose of 3g cumin powder twice per day with meals.
- Study participants were on a calorie restricted diet.
- Eating ground black chias seeds each day has been found to aid weight loss. See a video overview of the research and then one of the key research abstracts by following the links below:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/do-chia-seeds-help-with-belly-fat/
- https://www.nmcd-journal.com/article/S0939-4753(16)30329-5/fulltext
- Dose of 30g ground chia seeds per 1,000 kcalories of food consumed.
- Study participants were on a calorie restricted diet.
- Consuming black cumin (nigella / black onion seeds) each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research abstract by following the link below:
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874117336371
- Dose of 1.5g black cumin powder per day.
- Study participants were on a calorie restricted diet.
- For a video about black cumin, which contains the great tip to put black cumin seeds into a pepper grinder and use as a pepper alternative on appropriate foods, see the following link:
- Consuming cayenne pepper generally seems to increase the bodies rate of metabolism. See video overviews of the research, an article about the benefits of eating chilli peppers and then a key research paper by following the links:
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/boosting-brown-fat-through-diet/
- https://nutritionfacts.org/video/how-hot-peppers-may-extend-your-life/
- https://www.healthline.com/health-news/why-people-who-regularly-eat-chile-peppers-may-live-longer
- https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0067786
- Dose of 1g of cayenne pepper three times a day with meals.
- Study participants were on a calorie restricted diet.
- Consuming ginger powder each day has been found to aid weight loss. See the research abstract by following the link below:
- https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044
- Dose of 1g of ginger powder per day.
- Daily fish oil supplementation especially when combined with life modification intervention (mostly caloric restriction) has been found to reduce abdominal fat but not weight loss. See the research by following the link below:
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4646500/#:~:text=Conclusion,combined%20with%20life%20modification%20intervention.
- Overall, the median fish oil supplement (n3-PUFAs) dose was 1.92 g/day (range: 0.54–11.3 g/day), and the ratio of EPA to DHA varied from 0.23 to 1.55.
- Daily consumption of fermented Kimchi compared to the consumption of fresh Kimchi was found to have a significant reduction on waist to hip ratio and percent body fat. See the research abstract by following the link below.
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027153171100114X
- 3 x 100g portions of 10 day fermented Kimchi were consumed a day.
- Study participants were on a calorie restricted diet.
Commercial Weight Loss Supplements
- The use of commercial weight loss supplements is probably not such a good idea unless you have researched the ingredients, you understand your individual tolerance to them and you are sure what they say they contain they actually contain. For a good video on the subject see the following link:
Weight Loss Diets
- If you have an hour and some concentration to spare, see the following links to videos that provide information about evidence based weight loss:
- For a clear and concise small publication that addresses crash dieting and dieting in general and considers different approaches including detailing a crash dieting approach see the following information:
- The Rapid Fatloss Handbook A Scientific Approach to Crash Dieting
- Author: Lyle McDonald
- Publisher: bodyrecomposition.com
- In a nutshell the above book advises not to crash diet and explains the reasons for not doing so and actually promotes a nutritionally balanced moderate long term dieting approach. It does provide a scientific approach to crash dieting for those that insist on doing so but clearly advises against it. See the following link to a short article that defends moderation as a better approach:
- Research suggests that no one diet is significantly better than another overall and that the key challenge is to be able to manage weight control over the longer term. This is probably best done by incorporating diet change to be part of your ongoing lifestyle with individual circumstances and preferences taken into account. If sticking to a more rigid diet makes this harder to do long term this is probably not going to be a good choice. See the following link to the research:
- For a concise video about a mediterranean type of diet see the following link:
- For a concise video about a carnivore type of diet see the following link:
- For a concise video about a paleo type of diet see the following link:
- For a concise video about a low fat type of diet see the following link:
- For a concise video about a keto type of diet see the following link:
- For a comprehensive review of different diets with different focuses see the following link:
Weight Loss Medications
- For a video about weight loss medications see the following link:
Association between BMI and all-cause mortality modification by diet quality (from a population-based cohort study of 80 thousand adults in Sweden published in 2020)
- See the information below that indicates a healthy diet is beneficial independent of relative body weight and the link to the research paper:
- Association between BMI (A for all-cause mortality and B for cardiovascular mortality) and an mMED score (C for all-cause mortality and D for cardiovascular mortality) with mortality. The dark gray shaded regions in the figures correspond to 95% CIs, and the spike plots represent the distribution of BMI and mMED scores, respectively. Assessed by multivariable-adjusted HRs using of Cox regression analysis and restricted cubic splines, with a BMI of 25 kg/m2 and mMED score of 8 units as references. HRs adjusted for sex, age (splines with 2 knots), educational level (≤9, 10–12, >12 years, other), living alone (yes or no), leisure time physical exercise during the past year (<1 1="" 2="" 4="" h="" w="">5 h/w), walking/cycling (almost never, <20 1="" 20="" 40="" d="" h="" min="">1.5 h/d), height (splines with 2 knots), energy intake (splines with 2 knots), smoking habits (current, former, never), Charlson’s weighted comorbidity index (continuous; 1–16), and diabetes mellitus (yes/no). BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HR, hazard ratio; mMED, modified Mediterranean-like diet.
- Associations of combinations of BMI and adherence to an mMED with all-cause (A) and CVD mortality (B). Estimated by multivariable-adjusted HRs by use of Cox regression analysis with a normal BMI and high adherence to mMED as the reference. The CI in each subpanel is expressed both in numbers and as a line representing the width. HRs adjusted for sex, age (splines with 2 knots), educational level (≤9, 10–12, >12 years, other), living alone (yes or no), leisure time physical exercise during the past year (<1 1="" 2="" 4="" h="" w="">5 h/w), walking/cycling (almost never, <20 1="" 20="" 40="" d="" h="" min="">1.5 h/d), height (splines with 2 knots), energy intake (splines with 2 knots), smoking habits (current, former, never), Charlson’s weighted comorbidity index (continuous; 1–16), and diabetes mellitus (yes/no). BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HR, hazard ratio; mMED, modified Mediterranean-like diet.
The higher the mMED score the greater the compliance to the modified Mediterranean-like (mMED) diet.
Alcohol
- For an informative article about alcohol and diet see the following link:
- For a video about the health impacts of alcohol consumption see the following link:
- For an a good article about how to minimise the impact of alcohol on your body see the following link:
- For a great drug information site and the section specifically about alcohol see the following link:
- For a good overview video about the risks of alcohol use see the following link:
- For the summary about a range of research articles about how alcohol affects the immune system see the following link:
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4590612/
- For access to the articles summarised above see the following link:
- For a clear explanation of the statistical risks of risks of different amounts of alcohol consumption see the following link:
- https://medium.com/wintoncentre/the-risks-of-alcohol-again-2ae8cb006a4a
- From the above the absolute risks being:
- One drink a day (10g, 1.25 UK units) compared to none:
- An estimated extra 4 in 100,000 people (918 instead of 914) would experience a serious alcohol related health condition each year.
- Two drinks a day (20g, 2.5 UK units, which is slightly above the current UK guidelines of 14 units a week for both men and women) compared to none:
- An estimated extra 63 in 100,000 people (977 instead of 914) would experience a serious alcohol related health problem each year.
- For risk comparison in 2018, 45 in 100,000 people were killed or seriously injured in road traffic accidents (29,906 people of a population of 66.4 million) and 3 in 100,000 of that total were killed (1,784 people). The UK has the third lowest road traffic accident death rate after Norway (2 in 100,000) and Switzerland (3 in 100,000) in Europe. The USA with 11 in 100,000 has the highest death rate from countries in the following list (listed from lowest to highest).
- Norway, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Northern Ireland, Denmark, Irish Republic, Sweden, Japan, Israel, Malta, Spain, Netherlands, Germany, Finland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Estonia, Iceland, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Luxembourg, Lithuania, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Republic of Korea, Poland, Latvia, Croatia, New Zealand, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, USA.
- See the following link for the source data:
- For information about understanding risks and the difference between ongoing risks (e.g. obesity, regularly drinking alcohol, not exercising, etc) and more event based risks (e.g. riding a motorbike, having an x-ray, flying, etc) see the following link:
- The section below considers Covid-19 risk as another example of a day to day risk (since 2019) and was added for comparative purposes. However this section rather mushroomed as the pandemic unfolded and more and more scientific research was published and Covid-19 and its risk evolved. After this significant diversion a do however get back to alcohol further below.
- For another risk comparison (with a Covid-19 context) see the link to the following short article and then the link on to the source material which provides clearly presented further detail:
- For further Covid-19 risk comparisons see the following link to a comprehensive research backed Covid-19 risk calculator:
- https://bmjsept2021.qcovid.org/calculation
- This calculator provides estimated absolute risks for an individual for three different Covid-19 outcomes over a user selectable 10 to 90 day period (90 is the default).
- For comparison the 2018 UK road traffic accident risk of being killed or seriously injured in a road traffic accident of 45 people in 100,000 would equate to 1 in 2,222 (100,000 / 45) and the risk of being killed in a road traffic of 3 people in 100,000 would equate to 1 in 33,333 (100,000 / 3). It should however be noted that both of these risks are annual risks rather than the default 90 day period risk provided by the Covid-19 calculator.
- For some context the UK Health and Safety Executive says life cannot be safe and an "acceptable" lethal public risk is 1 in 1,000,000 a year. They have a threshold of "unacceptable" risks to workers of 1 in 1,000 a year. See the following link for the source of this information:
- For other Covid-19 risk calculators see the following links:
- https://alama.org.uk/covid-19-medical-risk-assessment/
- https://corical.immunisationcoalition.org.au/
- https://covid-19-diagnosis.public.agenaai.app/
- For a video that explains the methods used to create this calculator see the following link:
- Risks and 12-month burdens of incident post-acute COVID-19 cardiovascular outcomes compared with the contemporary control cohort.
- Outcomes were ascertained 30 d after the COVID-19-positive test until the end of follow-up. COVID-19 cohort (n = 153,760) and contemporary control cohort (n = 5,637,647). Adjusted HRs and 95% CIs are presented. The length of the bar represents the excess burden per 1,000 persons at 12 months, and associated 95% CIs are also shown. Source:
- Risks and 12-month burdens of incident post-acute COVID-19 cardiovascular outcomes compared with the contemporary control cohort by care setting of the acute infection.
- Risks and burdens were assessed at 12 months in mutually exclusive groups comprising non-hospitalized individuals with COVID-19 (green), individuals hospitalized for COVID-19 (orange) and individuals admitted to intensive care for COVID-19 during the acute phase (first 30 d) of COVID-19 (blue). Outcomes were ascertained 30 d after the COVID-19-positive test until the end of follow-up. The contemporary control cohort served as the referent category. Within the COVID-19 cohort, non-hospitalized (n = 131,612), hospitalized (n = 16,760), admitted to intensive care (n = 5,388) and contemporary control cohort (n = 5,637,647). Adjusted HRs and 95% CIs are presented. The length of the bar represents the excess burden per 1,000 persons at 12 months, and related 95% CIs were also presented. Source:
- When considering risks, such as that for Covid-19, it is important to understand that the risk of getting Covid-19 and its impact varies over time and involves a complex set of interplaying factors both non pharm logical and pharma logical. This is nicely demonstrated in the following charts which show the evolution Covid-19 for the population as a whole in Italy over the first 2 years of the Covid-19 pandemic and the evolution of significant risks that result from infection.
- First chart. Epidemiological profile of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Italy.
- a Mean estimates of the net reproduction number Rt as obtained from epidemic curves of symptomatic cases by date of symptom onset collected by the National Integrated Surveillance System (23) (mean, grey solid line; shaded area, 95% CI; y-axis on the left). Horizontal dotted line: epidemic threshold (Rt = 1). Grey bars represent the daily incidence per 1,000 individuals of SARS-CoV-2 confirmed infections by date of diagnosis as reported to the Italian Integrated Surveillance System (24,25) (y-axis on the right). Background colors indicate the classification in different phases, and the dates indicated within the graph denote the day of transition between consecutive phases. The vertical dotted line denotes the start of the vaccination campaign on December 27, 2020. b Daily number of vaccine doses administered in Italy per 1,000 individuals (stacked barchart, y-axis on the left) (22). Line and bar colors, from lighter to darker shades, indicate respectively first, second and booster doses. Solid lines show the cumulative vaccination coverage in the Italian population (y-axis on the right). In Italy, administration of two doses is recommended to all individuals aged 5 years or more; administration of one booster dose is recommended to all individuals aged 12 years or more.
- Second chart. Probabilities of adverse outcomes given SARS-CoV-2 infection.
- a Probability of being hospitalized in the different epidemic phases (%), computed as the ratio between the number of COVID-19 hospital admissions reported to the Italian Integrated Surveillance System and the estimated number of SARS-CoV-2 infections in the same phase. b Probability of being admitted to an ICU in the different phases (%), computed as the ratio between the number of SARS-CoV-2 admissions to ICUs reported to the Italian Integrated Surveillance System and the estimated number of SARS-CoV-2 infections in the same phase. c Probability of death in the different phases (%), computed as the ratio between the number of COVID-19 deaths reported to the Italian Integrated Surveillance System and the estimated number of SARS-CoV-2 infections in the same phase. d Estimated relative reduction in the probability of hospitalization in the different phases compared to the first ancestral phase (%). e As d but for the probability of ICU admission. f As d but for the probability of death. Bars: mean estimates; vertical lines: 95% CI; n= 300 stochastic model realizations. Source:
- Duration of effectiveness of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease.
- 18 studies were included (all studies were carried out before the omicron variant began to circulate widely).
- Duration of vaccine effectiveness for single-variant or non-variant-of-concern settings or mixed-variant settings.
- Duration of vaccine effectiveness for single-variant or non-variant-of-concern settings (A) or mixed-variant settings (B). The lower bound of 95% CIs when vaccine efficacy or effectiveness is equal to 100% were undefined in manuscripts (n=1 in panel A and n=2 in panel B), and are shown here approximated. Source:
- https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)00152-0/fulltext.
- Older adults = adults over 50 years old.
- For a clear and concise article that explains the difference between absolute and relative risk reduction of Covid-19 vaccines and how these vary see the following link:
- For a video that explains how to calculate absolute risk from the data in a research paper by working through an example see the following link:
- Vaccination reduces the risk of Covid-19 infection and Long Covid and the research suggests it does so more than natural infection. See the following link to the research:
- Regardless of vaccination status Covid-19 reinfection adds to Covid-19 infection risks. See the following link to the research:
- When considering risks, such as that for Covid-19, it is also informative to also consider the risks associated with any mitigating factors such as the side effects of vaccines.
- Safety of the fourth COVID-19 BNT162b2 mRNA (second booster) vaccine.
- Self-reported reactions and physiological reactions to the second booster dose compared with the first booster dose.
- Reactions to the second booster, as recorded by the smartwatches (A, B). The figures show the mean difference between the baseline period and period after vaccination for heart rate (n=570; A) and heart rate variability-based stress (n=567; B). Mean values are depicted as solid lines and 95% CIs are presented as shaded regions. Boxplots of the differences between the daily mean changes in the smartwatch indicators for heart rate (n=363; C) and heart rate variability-based stress (n=358; D) between the second and first booster. Each change is between the period after vaccination and the baseline periods. Each green dot represents a single participant. (E) A comparison of the reactions reported by participants between the first and second boosters (n=392). The bars represent the percentage of participants who reported a reaction. Error bars represent 95% CIs. For each panel, the sample size represents the number of participants that we had sufficient data points to conduct the analysis using the criteria presented in the methods section. Source:
- https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanres/article/PIIS2213-2600(22)00407-6/fulltext#gr2
- The smartwatches used were Garmin smartwatches.
- For research that re-analysed the serious adverse events of special interest data following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination in the randomized trials in adults see the following link:
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X22010283
- For an article about the research written by two of the research authors see the following link:
- For research about the risk of heart conditions following COVID-19 Vaccination see the following links:
- Risk of myocarditis in the 1 to 28 days after COVID-19 vaccines or SARS-CoV-2.
- (Left) Incidence rate ratios with 95% CIs and (right) number of excess myocarditis events for million people with 95% CIs in the 1 to 28 day risk periods after the first, second, and booster doses of ChAdOx1, BNT162b2,and mRNA-1273 vaccine or a positive SARS-CoV-2 test in (top) a population of 42 842 345 vaccinated individuals and (bottom) younger men (age <40 age="" aged="" and="" li="" men="" older="" women="" years="" younger="">
- Highest myocarditis incidence from each study. Each bar represents a unique study. Data are grouped according to the number of stratifiers used. Stratifiers are sex, age, dose number and manufacturer. Each bar is labelled on the x-axis with the stratifiers unique to the study that the estimate was obtained from. The number above each bar represents the myocarditis incidence. Male (M), Dose 2 (D2), Not Applicable (NA). In studies using four stratifiers, the stratifiers Male and Dose 2 were universally applicable.
- For an example organisation that tracks and publishes such information for the UK, by publishing Covid-19 vaccine adverse reaction information, see the following link:
- For an example organisation that tracks and publishes such information for Germany, by publishing Covid-19 vaccine safety reports, see the following link:
- Weighted relative risk of alcohol for all attributable causes, by standard drinks consumed per day. Source (the same source upon which the above alcohol statistical risk was based):
- A standard drink is equivalent to 10g of alcohol = 1.25 UK units
- For a video that debunks the notion that alcohol has any physical health benefits see the following link:
- For a fantastic health data website with impressive data visualisation tools see the following link:
- http://www.healthdata.org/data-visualization/gbd-compare
- For an example data visualisation that shows deaths attributable to alcohol use in the UK in 2017 by type of risk see the image below:
- For the interactive version of the data visualisation shown in the image below see the following link (data values show as you click on various parts of the visualisation and different variables can be easily selected to show different data in the visualisation):
- Source: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). GBD Compare. Seattle, WA: IHME, University of Washington, 2015. Available from http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare. (Accessed 12th March 2020)
- For a video about alcohol and cancer see the following link:
- For an article about alcohol and damage to the brain see the following link:
- https://theconversation.com/alcohol-and-your-brain-study-finds-even-moderate-drinking-is-damaging-145726
- See the following link to the research paper mentioned in the article which details the scoring mechanism used to determine cognitive function change:
- Research about the habitual intake of alcohol and the increased risk of atrial fibrillation.
- Hazard ratio for incident atrial fibrillation for alcohol consumption in gram per day by non-linear Cox regression plotted on the log-scale (N = 92 452). The model uses age as time scale and is sex and cohort stratified. The reference value is 0 g/day. Source:
- 10g of alcohol = 1.25 UK units
- For information about the lifetime risk of atrial fibrillation according to optimal, borderline, or elevated levels of risk factors see the following link to a research paper:
- For information about the clinical course of atrial fibrillation in older adults see the following link to a research paper:
- What is the effect of a reduction in alcohol consumption on blood pressure?
- In people who drank two or fewer drinks per day, a reduction in alcohol was not associated with a significant reduction in blood pressure; however, in people who drank more than two drinks per day, a reduction in alcohol intake was associated with increased blood pressure reduction. Reduction in systolic blood pressure (mean difference −5·50 mm Hg, 95% CI −6·70 to −4·30) and diastolic blood pressure (–3·97, −4·70 to −3·25) was strongest in participants who drank six or more drinks per day if they reduced their intake by about 50%. Source:
- Does a physically active lifestyle attenuate the association between alcohol consumption and mortality risk?
- Chart 1 - Physical activity and all-cause mortality
- Chart 2 - Physical activity and CVD
- Chart 3 - Physical activity and cancer
- Multivariate adjusted Cox proportional hazard ratios describing the joint associations of physical activity (PA) and baseline alcohol consumption (units per week) and Chart 1 all-cause mortality events, Chart 2 CVD events, Chart 3 cancer events in the UK Biobank (n=297 988). PA was quantified using the Metabolic Equivalent Task (MET)-mins of PA/week by multiplying the MET value of activity by the number of minutes/week. We classified participants as low PA (0-599 MET-mins/week), moderate PA (600-1199 MET-mins/week) and high PA (≥1200 MET-mins/week). Alcohol consumption categories are based on the average weekly intake of standard drinks relative to UK guidelines. In the UK, one standard drink equals to 8 grams of pure alcohol. Within guidelines: <14 above="" adjusted="" alcohol="" and="" baseline="" behaviour="" body="" consumption="" diabetes.="" diet="" double="" for="" guidelines:="" guidelines="" hypertension="" index="" interaction="" li="" mass="" mins="" model="" more:="" or="" p="0.76." pa="" sedentary="" smoking="" socioeconomic="" source:="" status="" term="" the="" units="" was="" week.="" week="">
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091743519303810?via%3Dihub
- Low PA (0-599 MET-mins/week) is about 0 to 30 mins of brisk walking per day. Moderate PA (600-1199 MET-mins/week) is about 30 to 60 mins of brisk walking per day and high PA (≥1200 MET-mins/week) is about 60 mins and above of brisk walking per day.
- For a video about the effectiveness of different approaches to treating alcoholism see the following link:
- For research information about the health issues associated with red wine consumption see the following link:
- For a video of a university lecture about the evolution of scientific understanding about how alcohol effects health and the role of genetics in that see the following link:
Genetic influences
- An individuals genetic makeup can have a significant influence on an individuals weight and the ease by which they are able to lose / gain weight, for example, see the following process flow chart that details how certain individual genomic variants were thought may have predisposed individuals to respond differently to different types of exercise and diet. The inclusion of the information provided below is intended to provide an indication of the potential influence that your genes can have but it is an early interpretation of the science and definitely a very great oversimplification of it in this particular subject area. It is however useful for illustrative purposes to show how the principles of the science can be applied although it is important to bear in mind genetically complex areas such as weight and exercise involve very many genes and that to determine more valid genetic predispositions much more complicated algorithms than that represented below are now understood to be required.
- See the information below the chart for more information about how to use the flow chart (you'll need the raw data from a personal DNA test to apply it to a specific individual).
- The original source of this chart can be found via the following link:
- https://rockstarresearch.com/these-5-genes-predict-what-kind-of-diet-and-exercise-is-best-for-your-body-2/
- Percentages given in the flow chart boxes above, which show composite genotype categories, represent expected frequencies from the Caucasian population in the Quebec Family Study.
- Details of the patent application that this chart summarises the logic behind can be found via the following link:
- https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2011063098A2/en
- This patent application now belongs to Orig3n.com and I'm guessing underpins one or more of their products. Again I'm guessing but as the patent was filed in 2009 presumably the algorithm has been developed somewhat since then.
- Key information to know to understand the chart is that; SNP = Single Nucleotide Polymorphism, pronounced "snip". SNPs are nucleotide variants in specific DNA base pairs and are also often just referred to as Variants. SNPs are variants that occur in more than 1% of the population as opposed to DNA mutations that occur randomly (mutations at birth that weren't inherited are estimated to number from only between 10 to 100). Each SNP has a unique ID, such as, RS4994 (as shown in the first box in the above diagram). ADRB3 (also shown in the first box) is the gene ID which the SNP, RS4994 is part. The SNP base pair values (two of; A, T, C and G which equate to the actual DNA base nucleic acids and exist in the following four combinations; AT, TA, CG and GC) can be found in an individuals DNA test raw data file (presuming the DNA test company provides access to it, which for example, 23andMe.com does on request). The two base pair values of AA or TT (one value from each double helix DNA strand) shown for gene ADRB3 and SNP RS4994 take you one way down the decision tree at the top of the chart and all other SNP base pair values take you the other way. For a video about Variants (Alleles) and Genes see the following link:
- For a scientifically accurate animated depiction of DNA see the following video link:
- For overview videos that explains how genes exist within cells see the following links:
- For a video that explains that the full human genome wasn't fully sequenced until 2022 and why see the following link:
- For an audio podcast that explains that the Y chromosome wasn't fully sequenced until 2023 and why see the following link:
- For an article about using this single human genome as the reference genome in research see the following link:
- For a video about the use of genetic data in forensics which also provides some wider key insights see the following link:
- For a video with more detail about genetic variation see the following link:
- https://youtu.be/OvY1rsYUZD8
- This is part of a lecture series from the University of British Columbia see the following link to the project:
- The human genome has about 3 billion DNA base pairs, about 25 thousand genes (composed of sequences of DNA base pairs that contain the information needed to create proteins) and there are about 3.5 million SNPs in the average persons genome (and therefore 3 billion minus 3.5 million DNA base pairs that are the same for all humans).The DNA is stored in 23 chromosome pairs (which classifies the human genome as a diplode genome) in the nucleus of almost all the cells which make the human body (so in each cell nucleus there are 46 chromosomes in total and about 6 billion DNA base pairs in total although of course approximately 50% of the DNA is the same). Each chromosome is made up of a DNA double helix strand and each chromosome contains approximately one thousand genes. One of the DNA strand pairs was derived from the fertilising sperm DNA from your father and the other from the fertilised egg DNA from your mother which created you (via the biological process called Meiosis which made alterations to the original DNA from your father and mother). Chromosomes 1 to 22 are non-sex (autosomal) chromosomes. The 23rd chromosome contains two X DNA chromosome strands if you are a female and an X and a Y DNA chromosome strand if you are a male (the Y DNA strand originally derived from the fertilising sperm DNA that created you from your father). The Y DNA chromosome strand is much smaller than the other chromosomes with fewer than 100 genes. In addition mitochondrial DNA is stored in the mitochondria in a single circular chromosome (originally from the fertilised egg that created you from your mother) and contains 37 genes. SNPs have specific alphabetic values in each specific genome location where they have been identified. As with all DNA base pairs they are derived from 3 possible alphabetic value combinations derived from the 2 alphabetic values possessed by each parent. Non variant DNA base pair values in SNP locations are referred to as normal or wild type and if you have a single SNP value this is called heterozygous (so two different DNA base pair values in each chromosome, one of which is a SNP) and if you have two of the same SNP values this is called homozygous.
- For a video that discusses the above content and then an even more lengthy one see the following links:
- For more about the amounts of DNA originally derived from your father and mother see the following link to an explanatory article:
- For Commonly Asked Questions about genetics see the following link:
- For a video about early genetic research see the following link:
- For a long, wide ranging and detailed video about genetic research see the following link:
- For context, in the UK population about 1 in 17 people have genetic diseases mostly attributable to a small number of single specific gene problems. There are about 4,000 of these monogenetic diseases.
- For a video about genetics and genetic screening see the following link:
- For an article about genetic screening of embryos see the following link:
- For a video about a specific disease that can be genetically impacted by multiple genetic elements see the following link:
- For an online catalog of human genes and genetic disorders see the following link:
- https://omim.org/
- For a video about how to search the catalog see the following link:
- For a video about genetics, DNA inherited from neanderthals and Covid-19 risk impact see the following link:
- https://youtu.be/2ItF7uZgRWI
- For research that appears to confirm the same genetic Covid-19 risk association see the following link to the research:
- https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2022.910098/full
- The associated SNP is rs11385942.
- The web based Covid-19 risk estimation app can be found at the following link:
- For research about genetics and Covid-19 vaccine antibody response and risk of breakthrough infection see the following links to the research:
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-022-02078-6
- https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.13.21257065v3.full-text
- For a video that explains the above research see the following link:
- For an article about the complexity of applying genetics to provide personalised health / medicine see the following link:
- There are about 1,000 genes that are thought to have some influence on an individuals weight. Some gene variants in these genes are significant (e.g. in the FTO and MC4R genes) but the majority have complex and not well understood inter relationships. For videos about genetics and genetic variation both which cover the issue of fatness see the following links:
- https://youtu.be/Vc-egHHIEJo
- https://youtu.be/pOJYTMe_bp4
- https://youtu.be/Q__UOCI7P4Q
- For an article about how the risk of heart disease can be lower when obesity is due to genetics rather than lifestyle see the following link:
- For a video about how environment (in the widest sense) and behaviour impacts can cause changes that affect the way genes work (epigenetics) in the context of the impact of a mothers weight whilst pregnant related to their offspring's weight see the following link:
- For an article about epigenetics see the following link:
- For a video about epigenetics in the context of aging see the following link:
- The multidimensional impact of genetics within the human body:
- Rather than manually searching a raw DNA test data file (with the inherent base pair values interpretation confusion that can result from such an approach, as A = T and C = G and different services use different lettering standards) it is easier and will be much more incite full, to use the very impressive free services that can be accessed via the following links:
- codegen.eu
- https://impute.me/
- But be warned, although the services are straightforward to use, interpreting and understanding the information provided is complicated and requires a significant amount of time if you are new to the science.
- Alternatively or in addition if you are prepared to upload your data and have it added to a commercial or non commercial research database (such as can be accessed from the following link) they may provide their service to you for free:
- Alternatively or in addition you could use a commercial service to provide an analysis report for you via one of the personal genetic testing companies e.g. 23andMe or if your interest is more specific such as is in the area of nutrition / fitness / health span see the following link for an example organisation:
- You should however be aware that services differ significantly in what they offer and what areas of genetics they cover so if your interest is in a specific area you will need to check they cover the area you are interested in. They also vary in how up to date their reports are with regards the latest research and what analysis data sets are available to them so to get up to date and comprehensive results you may need to use multiple services.
- For further information about SNPs see the following links:
- https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/genomicresearch/snp
- snpedia.com
- This is another impressive site.
- codegen.eu uses data from and links to snpedia.com.
- For a clear and short (free to access via a PDF download) example chapter about SNPs and genetics and hair colour from a book about genetics see the following link:
- For a video about genetic variation in a single gene in this case the APOE gene go to the memory chapter in the video via the following link:
- For a clear article about how one of the big genetic testing companies goes about determining your likelihood of having a genetic influenced health condition (in this instance using gout as an example) see the following link:
- For an article about genetic risk scores and how to understand them see the following link:
- https://theconversation.com/genetics-helps-estimate-the-risk-of-disease-but-how-much-does-it-really-tell-us-175077
- An informative sentence from this article is: "Polygenic scores can give us a personal estimate of our genetic risk for a certain disease, which remains constant throughout life and can be calculated at any point. They could give an impetus to lead a healthy lifestyle, undertake appropriate screening, or be watchful for early symptoms."
- For example from the above link the Risk of developing schizophrenia when polygenic score is average or high (top 1%) is diagrammatically shown below:
- For a database catalog of polygenic risk scores see the following link:
- For the web based tool to convert a polygenic score to an absolute risk scale mentioned in the article see the following link:
- https://opain.github.io/GenoPred/PRS_to_Abs_tool.html
- For a short video that explains how to use the tool see the following link;
- For details of the research associated with this tool see the following link:
- For a video of a lecture that describes research about implementing population based genetic screening see the following link:
- For a video about understanding genetic risk scores and modifiable risk factors see the following link:
- An explanation of the key concepts necessary to gain a basic understanding of the above can be found by reading the following links:
- https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Genetics-vs-Genomics
- https://www.genome.gov/Health/Genomics-and-Medicine/Polygenic-risk-scores
- The above page has a disease focus but the same principles apply to exercise and diet as well as other health and wellbeing genetic influencing factors which have been determined from research projects which have been part of or based upon Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS).
- For a catalogue of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) see the following link:
- For an overview of where observational association studies sit in the hierarchy of research study evidence quality see the following diagram.
- A hierarchy of observational and experimental data. Mendelian randomisation studies sit at the interface of experimental and observational studies. Their findings can be used to provide more reliable evidence to guide interventional research and provide information about potential public health interventions when a randomised controlled trial may not be feasible. Although we adapt the conventional pyramid of evidence for presentation purposes, we consider that triangulation of findings from different study designs should be used. Source:
- https://www.bmj.com/content/362/bmj.k601
- For information and videos about Mendelian randomisation see the following links:
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7614635/
- Unfortunately the Figures in the document do not seem to be available.
- https://youtu.be/7Un70xovylo
- For a video of a university lecture about the evolution of scientific understanding about how alcohol effects health and how mendelian randomisation has had a role in that see the following link:
- In summary, the applicability of the flow chart at the beginning of this section should at best be considered illustrative of how an individual indicative predisposition may help an individual decide where to start when considering different approaches to exercising and dieting. Ultimately the best approach will be the one the individual determines is best for them to be able to stick to which may be influenced by many other factors other than genetics driven by the results provided by a personal DNA test.
- For insight into why the above statement is currently the case see the following link to recent research in the subject with the same study population (the Quebec Family Study) which provides an insight into the state of the science whilst confirming the impact of a significant genetic influences on obesity:
- For examples of research that provide further insight into the influence of non genetic factors see the research abstract/papers via the following links:
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-0934-0
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4302727/
- This is however a fast evolving area of science so lots of change should be expected.
- For an interesting article that discusses these evolving areas of the science in the context of personal genetics and Covid19 see the following link:
- For articles about how human genetic understanding has evolved and areas of new research see the following links:
- For a really good video that provides a detailed overview about personal DNA testing see the following link:
- For a good video that questions the value of personal DNA testing see the following link:
- For a video that provides a comparison of different DNA testing companies products see the following link:
- For a podcast about the communication and understanding genetic risk see the following link:
- For another good video that goes beyond personal DNA testing into the future of personal DNA editing see the following link:
- For lots more information about weight and genetic research see the following link:
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